galois
10/06/2009 10:00am,
Hi, taking advantage of the free access to academic journals I get through my work I read this: Progression Models in Resistance Training for Healthy Adults, Kraemer et al. 2002) from the Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport.
It's essentially a summary of the all the major research done in this area. Many of the things mentioned are well known but it's nice to see everything in the same place. Much research in resistance training in the past has been plagued by the use of untrained test subjects but this paper collects results from research supposedly done on subjects of all levels of training. I've not read the references so I can't personally vouch for the validity their methods but I can say that Kraemer and his team are, to my knowledge, respected in the field and will hopefully have done a good job of weeding out the bad science.
For anyone interested I include below a run through of some of the conclusions of the paper with regards to certain common uses of resistance training. This is basically just a copy and pasting of the bits that seemed most relevant to the good people of Bullshido with some alterations to make it hang together and make sense. The italics are the authors' and are used to give their recommendations. Anything in square brackets is there to clarify a reference to something not included in my edited version.
I've tried not to leave anything out that would change the meaning of what I've put in. Apologies for some wonky formatting, this is a result of the pasting. I didn't have the inclination to fix it all, I hope it doesn't affect the readability to greatly. If anyone wants the full version they can PM me their email adress and I'll send them a copy of the pdf (it's 184 kbs). Alternatively, if there is interest, I can rapidshare it.
TRAINABLE CHARACTERISTICS
MUSCULAR STRENGTH
The ability of the neuromuscular system to generate force.
LOADING
It is recommended that
novice to intermediate lifters train with loads corresponding to
60–70% of 1 RM for 8–12 repetitions and advanced individuals
use loading ranges of 80–100% of 1 RM in a periodized
fashion to maximize muscular strength. For progression in
those individuals training at a specific RM load (e.g., 8–12
repetitions), it is recommended that a 2–10% increase be
applied on the basis of muscle group size and involvement (i.e.,
greater load increases may be used for large muscle group,
multiple-joint exercises than small muscle group exercises)
when the individual can perform the current intensity for one
to two repetitions over the desired number on two consecutive
training sessions.
TRAINING VOLUME
It is recommended that a general resistance
training program (consisting of either single or
multiple sets) should be used by novice individuals initially.
For continued progression in intermediate to advanced individuals,
data from longer term studies indicate that multiple-
set programs should be used with a systematic variation
of training volume and intensity (periodized training)
over time, as this has been shown to be the most effective for
strength improvement. In order to reduce the risk of overtraining,
a dramatic increase in training volume is not
recommended.
EXERCISE SELECTION
Multiple-joint exercises (e.g., bench
press, squat) are more neurally complex and have
generally been regarded as most effective for increasing
overall muscular strength because they enable a greater
magnitude of weight to be lifted . Single-joint exercises
(e.g., leg extension, arm and leg curls) have typically
been used to target specific muscle groups, and may pose a
lesser risk of injury because of the reduced level of skill and
technique involved.
It is recommended that both exercise
types be included in a resistance training program with
emphasis on multiple-joint exercises for maximizing muscle
strength and closed kinetic chain movement capabilities in
novice, intermediate, and advanced individuals.
FREE WEIGHTS AND MACHINES
In essence, machines help stabilize the body and limit
movement about specific joints involved in synergy and
focus the activation to a specific set of prime movers.
Unlike machines, free weights may result in a pattern of
intra- and intermuscular coordination that mimics the movement
requirements of a specific task.
For novice to intermediate
training, it is recommended that the resistance
training program include free-weight and machine exercises.
For advanced strength training, it is recommended
that emphasis be placed on free-weight exercises, with machine
exercises used to complement the program needs.
EXERCISE ORDER
The sequencing of exercises significantly
affects the acute expression of muscular strength.
Considering that multiple-joint exercises have been
shown to be effective for increasing muscular strength,
maximizing performance of these exercises may be necessary
for optimal strength gains. This recommendation includes
performance of these exercises early in the training
session when fatigue is minimal. In addition, the muscle
groups trained each workout may effect the order. Therefore,
recommendations for sequencing exercises for novice,
intermediate, and advanced strength training include:
• When training all major muscle groups in a workout:
large muscle group exercises before small muscle
group exercises, multiple-joint exercises before singlejoint
exercises, or rotation of upper and lower body
exercises.
• When training upper body muscles on one day and
lower body muscles on a separate day: large muscle
group exercises before small muscle group exercises,
multiple-joint exercises before single-joint exercises,
or rotation of opposing exercises (agonist-antagonist
relationship).
• When training individual muscle groups: multiplejoint
exercises before single-joint exercises, higher
intensity exercises before lower intensity exercises.
REST PERIODS
For
novice, intermediate, and advanced training, it is recommended
that rest periods of at least 2–3 min be used for
multiple-joint exercises using heavy loads that stress a relatively
large muscle mass (e.g., squat, bench press). For
assistance exercises (those exercises complementary to core
exercise including exercises on machines, e.g., leg extension,
leg curl), a shorter rest period length of 1–2 min may
suffice.
VELOCITY OF MUSCLE ACTION
The velocity of muscular
contraction used to perform dynamic muscle actions affects
the neural, hypertrophic, and metabolic responses to resistance exercise.
For
untrained individuals, it is recommended that slow and
moderate [1-2 and 1-4 seconds for each repetition for concentric and eccentric exercises respectively] velocities be used initially. For intermediate training,
it is recommended that moderate velocity be used for
strength training. For advanced training, the inclusion of a
continuum of velocities from unintentionally slow to fast
velocities is recommended for maximizing strength. It is
important to note that proper technique is used for any
exercise velocity in order to reduce any risk of injury.
FREQUENCY
Optimal training frequency (the number of
workouts per week) depends on several factors such as
training volume, intensity, exercise selection, level of conditioning,
recovery ability, and the number of muscle groups
trained per workout session. Numerous resistance training
studies have used frequencies of 2–3 alternating days per weekin
previously untrained individuals.
it is recommended
that novice individuals train the entire body 2–3
days per week
It appears that progression to intermediate training does
not necessitate a change in frequency for training each
muscle group.
It is recommended that
for progression to intermediate training, a similar frequency
of 2–3 days per weekcontinues to be used for total-body workouts.
For those individuals desiring a change in training structure
(e.g., upper/lower-body split, split workout), an overall
frequency of 3–4 days per weekis recommended such that each
muscle group is trained 1–2 days per weekonly.
Optimal frequency necessary for progression during advanced
training varies considerably. Advanced weightlifters and bodybuilders use highfrequency
training (e.g., 4–6 days per week). The frequency for
elite weightlifters and bodybuilders may be even greater.
Double-split routines (two training sessions per day with
emphasis on different muscle groups) are common during
training which may result in 8–12 training
sessions per week. Frequencies as high as 18 sessions per week
have been reported in Olympic weightlifters. The
rationale for this high-frequency training is that frequent
short sessions followed by periods of recovery, supplementation,
and food intake allow for high-intensity training via
maximal energy utilization and reduced fatigue during exercise
performance. Elite power lifters typically train 4–6 days per week. It
is important to note that not all muscle groups are trained per
workout using a high frequency. Rather, each major muscle
group may be trained 2–3 times per weekdespite the large
number of workouts.
It is recommended that advanced
lifters train 4–6 days per week. Elite weightlifters and bodybuilders
may benefit from using very high frequency (e.g., two
workouts in 1 day for 4–5 days per week), so long as appropriate
steps are taken to optimize recovery and minimize the risk of
overtraining.
MUSCULAR POWER
By definition, more power is produced when the same
amount of work is completed in a shorter period of time, or
when a greater amount of work is performed during the
same period of time.
Neuromuscular contributions to maximal
muscle power include 1) maximal rate of force development
(RFD), 2) muscular strength at slow and fast
contraction velocities, 3) stretch-shortening cycle
(SSC) performance, and 4) coordination of movement
pattern and skill . Several studies have shown
improved power performance following a traditional resistance
training program. Yet, the effectiveness
of traditional resistance training methods for developing
maximal power has been questioned because this type
of training tends to only increase maximal strength at slow
movement velocities rather than improving the other components
contributing to maximal power production.
Heavy resistance training may actually decrease power
output unless accompanied by explosive movements.
The inherent problem with traditional weight training is that
the load is decelerated for a considerable proportion (24–
40%) of the concentric movement. Ballistic
resistance exercise (explosive movements that enable
acceleration throughout the full range of motion) has been
shown to limit this problem.
Exercise selection and order
The use of predominately multiple-joint exercises
performed with sequencing guidelines similar to strength
training is recommended for novice, intermediate, and advanced
power training.
Loading/volume/repetition velocity.
Considering that
resistance training program design has been effective for improving
muscular strength and power in novice- and intermediate-
trained individuals, it is recommended that a power component
consisting of one to three sets per exercise using light
to moderate loading (30–60% of 1 RM) for three to six
repetitions performed not to failure be integrated into the
intermediate strength training program. Progression for power
enhancement uses various loading strategies in a periodized
manner. Heavy loading (85–100% of 1 RM) is necessary for
increasing the force component of the power equation and light
to moderate loading (30–60% of 1 RM) performed at an
explosive velocity is necessary for increasing fast force production.
A multiple-set (three to six sets) power program integrated
into a strength training program consisting of one to six
repetitions in periodized manner is recommended for advanced
power training.
Rest periods and frequency.
The recommendations
for rest period length and training frequency for power
training are similar to those for novice, intermediate, and
advanced strength training.
LOCAL MUSCULAR ENDURANCE
Traditional resistance training has
been shown to increase absolute muscular endurance (the
maximal number of repetitions performed with a specific
pretraining load), but limited effects are
observed in relative local muscular endurance (endurance
assessed at a specific relative intensity, or percentage of
1 RM). Moderate- to low-resistance training with
high repetitions has been shown to be most effective for
improving absolute and relative local muscular endurance. A relationship exists between increases in
strength and local muscle endurance such that strength
training alone may improve local muscular endurance to
a certain extent. However, specificity of training produces
the greatest improvements. Training to
increase local muscular endurance implies the individual
1) performs high repetitions (long-duration sets) and/or
2) minimizes recovery between sets.
Loading and volume.
For novice and intermediate
training, it is recommended that relatively light loads
be used (10–15 repetitions) with moderate to high volume. For
advanced training, it is recommended that various loading
strategies be used for multiple sets per exercise (10–25 repetitions
or more) in periodized manner.
Rest periods.
The duration of rest intervals during
resistance exercise appears to affect muscular endurance.
It has been shown that bodybuilders (who typically train
with high volume and short rest periods) demonstrate a
significantly lower fatigue rate in comparison with power
lifters (who typically train with low to moderate volume
and longer rest periods).
It is recommended
that short rest periods be used for endurance
training (i.e., 1–2 min for high-repetition sets (15–20
repetitions or more), and less than 1 min for moderate
(10 –15 repetitions) sets.
Frequency.
[Similar to strength training.]
CONCLUSION
Progression of a resistance training program is dependent
on the development of appropriate and specific training
goals. An overview can be seen in Table 1. It requires the
prioritization of training systems to be used during a specific
training cycle to achieve desired results. Resistance training
progression should be an "individualized" process of exercise
prescription using the appropriate equipment, program
design, and exercise techniques needed for the safe and
effective implementation of a program. Trained and competent
strength and conditioning specialists should be involved
with this process in order to optimize the safety and
design of a training program. Whereas examples and guidelines
can be presented, ultimately the good judgment, experience,
and educational training of the exercise professionals
involved with this process will dictate the amount of
training success. Nevertheless, many exercise prescription
options are available in the progression of resistance training
to attain goals related to health, fitness, and physical
performance.
It's essentially a summary of the all the major research done in this area. Many of the things mentioned are well known but it's nice to see everything in the same place. Much research in resistance training in the past has been plagued by the use of untrained test subjects but this paper collects results from research supposedly done on subjects of all levels of training. I've not read the references so I can't personally vouch for the validity their methods but I can say that Kraemer and his team are, to my knowledge, respected in the field and will hopefully have done a good job of weeding out the bad science.
For anyone interested I include below a run through of some of the conclusions of the paper with regards to certain common uses of resistance training. This is basically just a copy and pasting of the bits that seemed most relevant to the good people of Bullshido with some alterations to make it hang together and make sense. The italics are the authors' and are used to give their recommendations. Anything in square brackets is there to clarify a reference to something not included in my edited version.
I've tried not to leave anything out that would change the meaning of what I've put in. Apologies for some wonky formatting, this is a result of the pasting. I didn't have the inclination to fix it all, I hope it doesn't affect the readability to greatly. If anyone wants the full version they can PM me their email adress and I'll send them a copy of the pdf (it's 184 kbs). Alternatively, if there is interest, I can rapidshare it.
TRAINABLE CHARACTERISTICS
MUSCULAR STRENGTH
The ability of the neuromuscular system to generate force.
LOADING
It is recommended that
novice to intermediate lifters train with loads corresponding to
60–70% of 1 RM for 8–12 repetitions and advanced individuals
use loading ranges of 80–100% of 1 RM in a periodized
fashion to maximize muscular strength. For progression in
those individuals training at a specific RM load (e.g., 8–12
repetitions), it is recommended that a 2–10% increase be
applied on the basis of muscle group size and involvement (i.e.,
greater load increases may be used for large muscle group,
multiple-joint exercises than small muscle group exercises)
when the individual can perform the current intensity for one
to two repetitions over the desired number on two consecutive
training sessions.
TRAINING VOLUME
It is recommended that a general resistance
training program (consisting of either single or
multiple sets) should be used by novice individuals initially.
For continued progression in intermediate to advanced individuals,
data from longer term studies indicate that multiple-
set programs should be used with a systematic variation
of training volume and intensity (periodized training)
over time, as this has been shown to be the most effective for
strength improvement. In order to reduce the risk of overtraining,
a dramatic increase in training volume is not
recommended.
EXERCISE SELECTION
Multiple-joint exercises (e.g., bench
press, squat) are more neurally complex and have
generally been regarded as most effective for increasing
overall muscular strength because they enable a greater
magnitude of weight to be lifted . Single-joint exercises
(e.g., leg extension, arm and leg curls) have typically
been used to target specific muscle groups, and may pose a
lesser risk of injury because of the reduced level of skill and
technique involved.
It is recommended that both exercise
types be included in a resistance training program with
emphasis on multiple-joint exercises for maximizing muscle
strength and closed kinetic chain movement capabilities in
novice, intermediate, and advanced individuals.
FREE WEIGHTS AND MACHINES
In essence, machines help stabilize the body and limit
movement about specific joints involved in synergy and
focus the activation to a specific set of prime movers.
Unlike machines, free weights may result in a pattern of
intra- and intermuscular coordination that mimics the movement
requirements of a specific task.
For novice to intermediate
training, it is recommended that the resistance
training program include free-weight and machine exercises.
For advanced strength training, it is recommended
that emphasis be placed on free-weight exercises, with machine
exercises used to complement the program needs.
EXERCISE ORDER
The sequencing of exercises significantly
affects the acute expression of muscular strength.
Considering that multiple-joint exercises have been
shown to be effective for increasing muscular strength,
maximizing performance of these exercises may be necessary
for optimal strength gains. This recommendation includes
performance of these exercises early in the training
session when fatigue is minimal. In addition, the muscle
groups trained each workout may effect the order. Therefore,
recommendations for sequencing exercises for novice,
intermediate, and advanced strength training include:
• When training all major muscle groups in a workout:
large muscle group exercises before small muscle
group exercises, multiple-joint exercises before singlejoint
exercises, or rotation of upper and lower body
exercises.
• When training upper body muscles on one day and
lower body muscles on a separate day: large muscle
group exercises before small muscle group exercises,
multiple-joint exercises before single-joint exercises,
or rotation of opposing exercises (agonist-antagonist
relationship).
• When training individual muscle groups: multiplejoint
exercises before single-joint exercises, higher
intensity exercises before lower intensity exercises.
REST PERIODS
For
novice, intermediate, and advanced training, it is recommended
that rest periods of at least 2–3 min be used for
multiple-joint exercises using heavy loads that stress a relatively
large muscle mass (e.g., squat, bench press). For
assistance exercises (those exercises complementary to core
exercise including exercises on machines, e.g., leg extension,
leg curl), a shorter rest period length of 1–2 min may
suffice.
VELOCITY OF MUSCLE ACTION
The velocity of muscular
contraction used to perform dynamic muscle actions affects
the neural, hypertrophic, and metabolic responses to resistance exercise.
For
untrained individuals, it is recommended that slow and
moderate [1-2 and 1-4 seconds for each repetition for concentric and eccentric exercises respectively] velocities be used initially. For intermediate training,
it is recommended that moderate velocity be used for
strength training. For advanced training, the inclusion of a
continuum of velocities from unintentionally slow to fast
velocities is recommended for maximizing strength. It is
important to note that proper technique is used for any
exercise velocity in order to reduce any risk of injury.
FREQUENCY
Optimal training frequency (the number of
workouts per week) depends on several factors such as
training volume, intensity, exercise selection, level of conditioning,
recovery ability, and the number of muscle groups
trained per workout session. Numerous resistance training
studies have used frequencies of 2–3 alternating days per weekin
previously untrained individuals.
it is recommended
that novice individuals train the entire body 2–3
days per week
It appears that progression to intermediate training does
not necessitate a change in frequency for training each
muscle group.
It is recommended that
for progression to intermediate training, a similar frequency
of 2–3 days per weekcontinues to be used for total-body workouts.
For those individuals desiring a change in training structure
(e.g., upper/lower-body split, split workout), an overall
frequency of 3–4 days per weekis recommended such that each
muscle group is trained 1–2 days per weekonly.
Optimal frequency necessary for progression during advanced
training varies considerably. Advanced weightlifters and bodybuilders use highfrequency
training (e.g., 4–6 days per week). The frequency for
elite weightlifters and bodybuilders may be even greater.
Double-split routines (two training sessions per day with
emphasis on different muscle groups) are common during
training which may result in 8–12 training
sessions per week. Frequencies as high as 18 sessions per week
have been reported in Olympic weightlifters. The
rationale for this high-frequency training is that frequent
short sessions followed by periods of recovery, supplementation,
and food intake allow for high-intensity training via
maximal energy utilization and reduced fatigue during exercise
performance. Elite power lifters typically train 4–6 days per week. It
is important to note that not all muscle groups are trained per
workout using a high frequency. Rather, each major muscle
group may be trained 2–3 times per weekdespite the large
number of workouts.
It is recommended that advanced
lifters train 4–6 days per week. Elite weightlifters and bodybuilders
may benefit from using very high frequency (e.g., two
workouts in 1 day for 4–5 days per week), so long as appropriate
steps are taken to optimize recovery and minimize the risk of
overtraining.
MUSCULAR POWER
By definition, more power is produced when the same
amount of work is completed in a shorter period of time, or
when a greater amount of work is performed during the
same period of time.
Neuromuscular contributions to maximal
muscle power include 1) maximal rate of force development
(RFD), 2) muscular strength at slow and fast
contraction velocities, 3) stretch-shortening cycle
(SSC) performance, and 4) coordination of movement
pattern and skill . Several studies have shown
improved power performance following a traditional resistance
training program. Yet, the effectiveness
of traditional resistance training methods for developing
maximal power has been questioned because this type
of training tends to only increase maximal strength at slow
movement velocities rather than improving the other components
contributing to maximal power production.
Heavy resistance training may actually decrease power
output unless accompanied by explosive movements.
The inherent problem with traditional weight training is that
the load is decelerated for a considerable proportion (24–
40%) of the concentric movement. Ballistic
resistance exercise (explosive movements that enable
acceleration throughout the full range of motion) has been
shown to limit this problem.
Exercise selection and order
The use of predominately multiple-joint exercises
performed with sequencing guidelines similar to strength
training is recommended for novice, intermediate, and advanced
power training.
Loading/volume/repetition velocity.
Considering that
resistance training program design has been effective for improving
muscular strength and power in novice- and intermediate-
trained individuals, it is recommended that a power component
consisting of one to three sets per exercise using light
to moderate loading (30–60% of 1 RM) for three to six
repetitions performed not to failure be integrated into the
intermediate strength training program. Progression for power
enhancement uses various loading strategies in a periodized
manner. Heavy loading (85–100% of 1 RM) is necessary for
increasing the force component of the power equation and light
to moderate loading (30–60% of 1 RM) performed at an
explosive velocity is necessary for increasing fast force production.
A multiple-set (three to six sets) power program integrated
into a strength training program consisting of one to six
repetitions in periodized manner is recommended for advanced
power training.
Rest periods and frequency.
The recommendations
for rest period length and training frequency for power
training are similar to those for novice, intermediate, and
advanced strength training.
LOCAL MUSCULAR ENDURANCE
Traditional resistance training has
been shown to increase absolute muscular endurance (the
maximal number of repetitions performed with a specific
pretraining load), but limited effects are
observed in relative local muscular endurance (endurance
assessed at a specific relative intensity, or percentage of
1 RM). Moderate- to low-resistance training with
high repetitions has been shown to be most effective for
improving absolute and relative local muscular endurance. A relationship exists between increases in
strength and local muscle endurance such that strength
training alone may improve local muscular endurance to
a certain extent. However, specificity of training produces
the greatest improvements. Training to
increase local muscular endurance implies the individual
1) performs high repetitions (long-duration sets) and/or
2) minimizes recovery between sets.
Loading and volume.
For novice and intermediate
training, it is recommended that relatively light loads
be used (10–15 repetitions) with moderate to high volume. For
advanced training, it is recommended that various loading
strategies be used for multiple sets per exercise (10–25 repetitions
or more) in periodized manner.
Rest periods.
The duration of rest intervals during
resistance exercise appears to affect muscular endurance.
It has been shown that bodybuilders (who typically train
with high volume and short rest periods) demonstrate a
significantly lower fatigue rate in comparison with power
lifters (who typically train with low to moderate volume
and longer rest periods).
It is recommended
that short rest periods be used for endurance
training (i.e., 1–2 min for high-repetition sets (15–20
repetitions or more), and less than 1 min for moderate
(10 –15 repetitions) sets.
Frequency.
[Similar to strength training.]
CONCLUSION
Progression of a resistance training program is dependent
on the development of appropriate and specific training
goals. An overview can be seen in Table 1. It requires the
prioritization of training systems to be used during a specific
training cycle to achieve desired results. Resistance training
progression should be an "individualized" process of exercise
prescription using the appropriate equipment, program
design, and exercise techniques needed for the safe and
effective implementation of a program. Trained and competent
strength and conditioning specialists should be involved
with this process in order to optimize the safety and
design of a training program. Whereas examples and guidelines
can be presented, ultimately the good judgment, experience,
and educational training of the exercise professionals
involved with this process will dictate the amount of
training success. Nevertheless, many exercise prescription
options are available in the progression of resistance training
to attain goals related to health, fitness, and physical
performance.